Math History in Public Schools
The history of education in the United States is marked by disagreement and debate. This holds true for math education as much or more than any other academic discipline. The debate between math experts, parents, math educators and administrators reached fierce levels on a number of occasions, perhaps reaching the peak in the 1990s as the backlash to "new math" led to reform. There are at least five major divisions in the history of math education.
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Early U.S. History
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In the mid to late 1800s, math education blossomed as states began to establish public education systems. Johann Pestalozzi, a Swiss educator, promoted the idea of associating ideas with visual images, and many American teachers adopted this approach. They used drawings, charts and objects--a precursor to the later use of manipulatives in math education. A reform teacher from Connecticut, Josiah Holbrook, developed a popular set of models to teach geometric principles. Numeral frames, similar to abacuses, were often used in schools. By the 1850s math textbooks were increasingly standardized and less expensive.
Traditional Math
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From the 1900s to 1957, math education became standardized. It focused on basic skills, repetition, drills and paper testing. The number of high school students more than quadrupled, and research mathematicians took an interest in high school mathematics, encouraging the introduction of graphing and models. Since most students did not pursue math past high school, the focus was on teaching students to keep proper accounts by mastering basic math skills. The slide rule was used for engineering students. Owning a slide rule indicated technical expertise.
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Cold War Years
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When Russia launched Sputnik in 1957, it prompted a concern that American students were lagging behind in math and science education. This concern prompted the advent of "New Math," focusing on set theory and mathematical principles from first grade through college. The techniques were controversial and eventually self-destructed since the method works only with students with an aptitude for mathematical theory. New Math was not universally adopted, and there was much debate about math instruction. In this time, scientists such as B.F. Skinner introduced the first "automated learning" machines, signaling the coming computer era. By the 1970s, microprocessors made the first electronic calculators possible, and educational "toys" using microprocessor technology became popular.
Reform Math
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The reform math era was part of a great trend in education toward self-directed or self-paced learning. Students directed their own activities through manipulatives, games and learning centers. There was more group work and little rote memorization. From the 1970s through the 1990s, the overall math scores for U.S. students decreased to a point that educators became alarmed. The 1983 report commissioned by Terrell Bell, the U.S. Secretary of Education, was titled "A Nation at Risk," and it highlighted shortcomings in U.S. education, including math education. It advocated a rigorous overhaul of the math curriculum, bringing in university experts, upgraded textbooks and standardized testing and national standards. With support from the National Science Foundation, the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics suggested national standards and specific math texts. However, some of these texts failed to develop basic arithmetic and algebra skills, causing one group of math educators to protest. Another group felt too much emphasis on algorithms, or memorized math facts, was bad.
The Information Age
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Many school districts and states in the U.S. adopted stricter basic math standards in the 2000s. The use of calculators, even in elementary schools, became standard. Advanced math courses, such as calculus and statistics, are now offered in most high schools, making use of advanced graphing calculators. Computers offer games and algorithm practice. The "Everyday Math" series became popular in elementary schools around the country, using colorful illustrations, many manipulatives and a circular learning pattern, in which students return to a topic several times throughout the course of the year.
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References
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