Ethical Dualism
There is no noncontroversial definition of "ethical dualism." It is a slippery phrase because all ethical systems have some account of right and wrong. The fact that all ethics have this means that all ethics is inherently dualistic. Since this cannot be the real meaning of "dualism," it must lie elsewhere, and it lies, generally, in the nature of the moral agent who decides among different options.
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Reason
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A useful conception of ethical dualism, though not the only one, lies in the conception of man as bipolar. On the one hand, as writers like Plato never tire of saying, man is rational. He can abstract from sense experience and discover natural laws. On the other hand, man is also irrational. There is an inborn trait to self-destruct, to live by passions like anger or envy.
Ethical Reason
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Aristotle referred to that virtue of the human soul that was able to skilfully apply reason to the different aspects of one's life as "prudence." For Plato, when the soul is properly organized, reason will rule the passions and impulses. In both cases, man is seen as dual: he is both rational and irrational at the same time. This means ethical dualism implies struggle, where reason must impose itself on the agitated passions. Reason permits one to weigh evidence, consider the common good and contemplate possible consequences. Passion drives man to destruction, as he is constantly trying to satisfy desire. This relation between reason and passion is the nature of ethical dualism in the ancient world, but it remains valid today.
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Modern Dualism
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Dualist ethical theories must stress that moral decision-making can go only one of two mutually exclusive ways. There is a substantial difference between ancients and moderns, though often, the same terms are used. Immanuel Kant was a dualist in that ethical decisions could only go one of two ways. Moral decisions can be based either on universality, or willing the common good without any self interest, or particularity, where selfish desires cloud one's judgment. One either wills from the universal common good without distinction, or one wills from some form of self-interest. The former is the touchstone of moral behavior, the latter, immoral behavior.
Utilitarianism
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The other form of modern dualism is utility. It rejects Kant's concern with universality and, instead, redefines reason as "enlightened self-interest." The fact that this vehemently opposes the Kantian universality view does not affect the fact that it is purely dualistic. The great utilitarians like Jeremy Bentham or Adam Smith also saw mankind as rational, but this rationality was conceived to be reflective self-interest, a desire that is egocentric, yet not purely selfish. A business owner wants to make a profit, so she will treat customers well and sell at a competitive price. This is an egocentric motive, but it is far from selfish. Irrationality here might be economic practices that harm one's interest, such as selling shoddy goods, failing to follow the competition or just being lazy. In this case, there is only one of two ways to act: in one's self interest or to one's detriment.
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