Psychology Behind Learning
Psychology and particularly cognitive psychology, is a discipline devoted to, among other things, studying how people perceive, remember, think, problem solve and learn. While cognitive psychologists often adopt different theoretical approaches and study a wide range of phenomena, most will agree that the focus of the subject is the main internal psychological processes involved in studying the environment and making appropriate decisions. Some of the most significant figures in studying the psychology behind learning have been Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky and more recently, Seymour Papert. Their research focused on cognition and learning, and the resulting pedagogical theories have revolutionized the way educators plan classroom instruction.
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Stages of Development
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Jean Piaget had a tremendous impact on cognitive psychology and its application to child development and learning. He hypothesized that people are preprogrammed to be logical thinkers, and that the development of learning capacity follows an innate sequence of stages over the child's life. According to Piaget, children learn through a series of four cognitive developmental stages which occur distinctly and sequentially.
The sensorimotor stage lasts from birth until the age of 2, and is the stage of action during which the infant learns about physically navigating the world.
The pre-operational stage follows, and lasts until about 7 years of age. During this stage, thinking is dominated by perception, and children in this stage often pay attention to only one part of a given situation (a concept called centration).
The concrete operational stage lasts between the ages of 7 and 11. At this point, thinking becomes less dependent on perception; the development of logical-mathematical thinking advances greatly.
The final stage of cognitive development is the formal operational stage, which lasts from age 12 into adulthood. This stage is marked by the development of logical and abstract thinking.
Zone of Proximal Development
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To address the issues of learning and internalization, Lev Vygotsky offered the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which contrasted with Piaget's theories about a lag of learning behind development. In his book, Mind in Society, Vygotsky defines the zone of proximal development as "the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers." He suggests that an individual's learning capacity is enhanced when receiving guidance from another person, particularly a peer. The biggest implication of his work is that individuals can promote their cognitive development by interacting with others who can help them reach higher levels of functioning within their zone of proximal development.
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Constructivism and Constructionism
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Piaget's research lead to the creation of the constructivism theory of learning. Constructivism is based on the notions that children learn by formulating knowledge based on their experiences. Seymour Papert, a professor at MIT (the Massachusetts Institute of Technology), developed a theory of learning based upon Piaget's constructivism. Papert's theory was based on the claims that constructionism "shares contructivism's view of learning as building knowledge structures through progressive internalization of actions. It then adds the idea that this happens especially felicitously in a context where the learner is consciously engaged in constructing a public entity, whether it's a sand castle on the beach or a theory of the universe" (Papert, 1980). Because Papert focuses greatly on learning through making, the emphasis shifts from universals to individual learners, and helps in understanding how ideas get formed and transformed when expressed through different contexts and mediums.
Other Approaches
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Experimental cognitive psychology involves carrying out laboratory experiments on normal individuals. Cognitive neuroscience involves using techniques such as brain scans (fMRI and EEG) to study brain function in order to identify the neurophysiological structure used in cognition. EEG is a technique that is performed on psychological and psychiatric patients to detect any abnormalities related to electrical activity in the brain. Brain cells communicate through the use of electrical impulses. These can in turn be detected and recorded at the surface of the scalp through an EEG procedure, which tracks and records these electric patterns in the brain. Normal activity in the brain produces electrical signals that form a recognizable pattern. fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) uses an extremely powerful magnetic field, sound frequency pulses and a computer to produce detailed images of the brain and to measure the small metabolic changes that are apparent when a part of the brain becomes active. fMRI is particularly important to the study of learning psychology because it allows researchers to match specific parts of the brain to specific cognitive tasks (such as reading, memory and speech).
Considerations
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In addition to theoretical research endeavors into human behavior and development, psychologists focusing on learning also are concerned with treating different learning disabilities and impairments. A lot of these have to deal with memory and cognitive problems, although most of the research is focused on dyslexia, the most common learning disability in which, despite regular and consistent classroom instruction, children fail to gain appropriate language and reading skills. A lot of psychologists also concentrate on counseling and therapy with children who experience dyslexia and other learning disabilities. Thus, research and practice often come together to provide the most advanced understanding of learning.
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