About Modern China

Modern China refers to a period in China's history from the late 1830s until 1911, when the Republican Revolution occurred. Before this, many scholars thought technological innovation was unnecessary and China was superior. During the 19th century, however, the growing population of China, which had reached 300 million, the presence of Western maritime powers and the impractical bureaucratic and military systems caused the country to change its economic and political systems.

History

Right before modern China emerged, Westerners from European countries, such as England, Portugal, France and Russia began to deal with China. They began to trade with the Chinese at the port of Guangzhou. These trades were conducted according to Chinese rituals that did not treat people from other countries as equal partners. Other countries, such as England, established a three-party system where they exchanged their goods for those from countries such as India that could be sold in China, including opium. When opium began to be trafficked in China, the Qing government attempted to establish laws to prohibit it. When this did not work, a conflict with the British known as the Opium War occurred from 1839 to 1842.

Trade

China lost the Opium War catastrophically, and after the conflict, the country lost its status as an imperial power. China was forced to make a series of agreements with Westerners that changed the political and economic structures of China. After the Opium War, China had to do business with foreign powers differently than in the past. This was part of its transformation into modern China. The Chinese ceded the country of Hong Kong, established a trade system that was less monopolistic, opened five new ports in China and allowed the British exemption from Chinese trade laws. This was why, during the era of modern China, the British were a favored group, and received more privileges than other foreign powers. The Chinese also lost their elite status and were no longer able to view themselves as being above other countries in dealings.

Rebellion

China also needed to make changes to its political system during its modern era, because the government had done a poor job of taking care of public works projects. Droughts, famines and floods had led to poor conditions. This, along with tensions due to a poor economic system and military defeats, led to unrest in the country. The result was the Taiping Rebellion (1851 to 1864), an uprising in southern China led by teacher Hong Xiuquan. This group attempted to establish a system that was similar to that of the past, where peasants owned and worked the land, marriages were arranged and idols were no longer worshiped. Western powers came to the aid of the imperial army, to defeat the members of this movement, but it took 14 years.

Reform

After the Taiping Rebellion had been brought to an end, China sought to establish a system that incorporated Western ideas into different aspects of Chinese life. Students began to study languages and sciences from Western countries, and in private schools, factories and shipyards, Western structures were established. The government also sent students to other countries to learn. During this Self Strengthening Movement, from 1861 to 1894, scholars in the country also tried to develop industries, military operations and transportation that were similar to the West. The country failed to establish the political systems and incorporate technology that were important to other countries' industrial success, which was why the movement ultimately failed. China's efforts to modernize were impeded by other countries' efforts to weaken its empire. It started when Russia expanded into Manchuria and was followed by France colonizing Vietnam and Cambodia and Japan taking Taiwan and the Penghu Islands.

Effects

After the Self Strengthening Movement, in 1898, Qing Emperor Guangxu attempted to make sweeping social and political changes to reform China, in a similar manner to Japan, which had seen success in reformation. The government tried to rid the country of corruption and establish a legal system, civil service and school exams, a defense structure and a stronger government. The leaders also tried to create a more modern scientific environment by encouraging advances in industries such as mining, agriculture and medicine. There was a great deal of opposition to these reforms, especially among more conservative elite groups such as the Manchus. Yuan Shikai and his followers forced Guangxu out of power, and they began to support secret groups, known in the West as Boxers, that were against both foreigners and Christianity. People within these groups began to take actions, such as burning missionaries and taking over areas that were under the control of other countries, which caused foreign powers to become involved to squash their efforts. After the group was stopped, however, many of the efforts of Guangxu were erased by Manchus.

Opposition

In the 1890s and early 1900s, another revolutionary leader, Sun Yat-sen, attempted to bring change to the country based on the concepts of democracy, nationalism and "people's livelihood." These principles was centered around the idea of overtaking the Manchus, ending foreign rule in China and establishing a socialistic country. Republicans who followed this leader staged a rebellion on October 11, 1911, which spread to different parts of China. Many provinces began to declare independence from the Qing empire. When Sun Yat-sen became the president of the country, and the last Manchu leader was out of power, Modern China came to an end as Republican China was established.